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What Is a Case Study?
When you’re performing research as part of your job or for a school assignment, you’ll probably come across case studies that help you to learn more about the topic at hand. But what is a case study and why are they helpful? Read on to learn all about case studies.
Deep Dive into a Topic
At face value, a case study is a deep dive into a topic. Case studies can be found in many fields, particularly across the social sciences and medicine. When you conduct a case study, you create a body of research based on an inquiry and related data from analysis of a group, individual or controlled research environment.
As a researcher, you can benefit from the analysis of case studies similar to inquiries you’re currently studying. Researchers often rely on case studies to answer questions that basic information and standard diagnostics cannot address.
Study a Pattern
One of the main objectives of a case study is to find a pattern that answers whatever the initial inquiry seeks to find. This might be a question about why college students are prone to certain eating habits or what mental health problems afflict house fire survivors. The researcher then collects data, either through observation or data research, and starts connecting the dots to find underlying behaviors or impacts of the sample group’s behavior.
Gather Evidence
During the study period, the researcher gathers evidence to back the observed patterns and future claims that’ll be derived from the data. Since case studies are usually presented in the professional environment, it’s not enough to simply have a theory and observational notes to back up a claim. Instead, the researcher must provide evidence to support the body of study and the resulting conclusions.
Present Findings
As the study progresses, the researcher develops a solid case to present to peers or a governing body. Case study presentation is important because it legitimizes the body of research and opens the findings to a broader analysis that may end up drawing a conclusion that’s more true to the data than what one or two researchers might establish. The presentation might be formal or casual, depending on the case study itself.
Draw Conclusions
Once the body of research is established, it’s time to draw conclusions from the case study. As with all social sciences studies, conclusions from one researcher shouldn’t necessarily be taken as gospel, but they’re helpful for advancing the body of knowledge in a given field. For that purpose, they’re an invaluable way of gathering new material and presenting ideas that others in the field can learn from and expand upon.
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OBSERVATION
Methods, Tools & Techniques
Methods, Tools and Techniques are ways of gathering data and collecting the information to learn what changes have happened.
(Adapted from: http://atlasti.com/observational-research )
Observation is a method in which a person observes behaviour to note changes in people or places, typically as the result of an intervention. Most simply it is learning through observing and documenting.
Observation is most common in psychology and other social sciences. It lets the researcher describe situations under study using the five senses.
Using observation in different ways
You can use observational research in different ways. At one end is the controlled observation, where the researcher completely manages the environment. At the other is participant observation where the researcher joins the group to understand behaviour and changes. Both have strengths and weaknesses which are often linked to how much an evaluator or researcher has influenced the environment and it’s subjects.
Observation covers a lot of ground. It can involve just watching people, listening to everyday conversations, interviewing individuals and or groups, filling questionnaires and checklists. In short, observing.
Naturalistic (or nonparticipant) observation happens when a researcher doesn’t intervene and studies behaviour that occurs naturally.
In participant observation , the researcher take a full part. Most commonly, this happens when the researcher joins a group to observe behaviour that otherwise would be inaccessible.
Case Studies as observation
Case Studies are a type of observational research that involve a thorough descriptive analysis of a single individual, group, or event. There is no single way to conduct a case study so researchers use a range of methods from unstructured interviewing to direct observation.
VIDEO RESOURCE
Understanding Observational Research
USEFUL RESOURCES
This Forum for Qualitative Social Research site includes a comprehensive explanation of observation methods, recommendations on what to observe , ethics in observation and tips to collect useful data.
This slide deck created by Melanie Bryant from Swinburne University in Australia presents the basics of conducting participant observation in applied research projects.
Characteristics of effective observers
- Having an open, nonjudgmental attitude.
- Being interested in learning about others.
- Being a careful observer, recorder and a good listener.
- Being open to the unexpected.
- Allows insight into contexts, relationships and behaviour. By being able to observe the flow of behaviour in its own setting, the evidence gathered can be more credible than, say, surveys, which rely on the participants’ memory, honesty and awareness.
- Observation is often used to generate new ideas. As it gives the person gathering evidence the opportunity to explore the total situation, it often suggests lines of enquiry and outcomes not thought of before. It can provide new information that is crucial for service improvements, project design, other data collection, and interpretation of other data.
Disadvantages & Limitations
- Observation usually takes a lot of time compared with other methods.
- In social services, observation requires a high level of trust between the person collecting information and participants. Sometimes service staff have easy access to the homes, workplaces and social settings that clients are part of. Often however, these settings are not open to observers, so it can be difficult to find authentic environments to observe changes in behaviour.
- In participant observation it can be difficult to get time/privacy for recording. For example, with participant observations, researchers can’t take notes openly as this would affect their participation. This means they have to wait until they are alone and rely on memory.
- Observations are often small-scale and conclusions may not be able to be generalised. It can also be difficult to claim the intervention was responsible for the changes observed.
- The researcher needs to be trained or experienced enough to recognise events that are significant and worth further attention.
- If the researcher becomes too involved they may lose objectivity and become biased. There is always the danger that we will see what we expect, or want, to see. This is a problem for anyone within an organisation doing any evaluation work.
Case Study Observational Research: A Framework for Conducting Case Study Research Where Observation Data Are the Focus
Affiliation.
- 1 1 University of Otago, Wellington, New Zealand.
- PMID: 27217290
- DOI: 10.1177/1049732316649160
Case study research is a comprehensive method that incorporates multiple sources of data to provide detailed accounts of complex research phenomena in real-life contexts. However, current models of case study research do not particularly distinguish the unique contribution observation data can make. Observation methods have the potential to reach beyond other methods that rely largely or solely on self-report. This article describes the distinctive characteristics of case study observational research, a modified form of Yin's 2014 model of case study research the authors used in a study exploring interprofessional collaboration in primary care. In this approach, observation data are positioned as the central component of the research design. Case study observational research offers a promising approach for researchers in a wide range of health care settings seeking more complete understandings of complex topics, where contextual influences are of primary concern. Future research is needed to refine and evaluate the approach.
Keywords: New Zealand; appreciative inquiry; case studies; case study observational research; health care; interprofessional collaboration; naturalistic inquiry; observation; primary health care; qualitative; research design.
- Observational Studies as Topic / methods*
- Observational Studies as Topic / standards
- Primary Health Care / organization & administration
- Research Design*
- Self Report / standards
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- What Is an Observational Study? | Guide & Examples
What Is an Observational Study? | Guide & Examples
Published on March 31, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on March 24, 2023.
An observational study is used to answer a research question based purely on what the researcher observes. There is no interference or manipulation of the research subjects, and no control and treatment groups .
These studies are often qualitative in nature and can be used for both exploratory and explanatory research purposes. While quantitative observational studies exist, they are less common.
Observational studies are generally used in hard science, medical, and social science fields. This is often due to ethical or practical concerns that prevent the researcher from conducting a traditional experiment . However, the lack of control and treatment groups means that forming inferences is difficult, and there is a risk of confounding variables and observer bias impacting your analysis.
Table of contents
Types of observation, types of observational studies, observational study example, advantages and disadvantages of observational studies, observational study vs. experiment, frequently asked questions.
There are many types of observation, and it can be challenging to tell the difference between them. Here are some of the most common types to help you choose the best one for your observational study.
There are three main types of observational studies: cohort studies, case–control studies, and cross-sectional studies .
Cohort studies
Cohort studies are more longitudinal in nature, as they follow a group of participants over a period of time. Members of the cohort are selected because of a shared characteristic, such as smoking, and they are often observed over a period of years.
Case–control studies
Case–control studies bring together two groups, a case study group and a control group . The case study group has a particular attribute while the control group does not. The two groups are then compared, to see if the case group exhibits a particular characteristic more than the control group.
For example, if you compared smokers (the case study group) with non-smokers (the control group), you could observe whether the smokers had more instances of lung disease than the non-smokers.
Cross-sectional studies
Cross-sectional studies analyze a population of study at a specific point in time.
This often involves narrowing previously collected data to one point in time to test the prevalence of a theory—for example, analyzing how many people were diagnosed with lung disease in March of a given year. It can also be a one-time observation, such as spending one day in the lung disease wing of a hospital.
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Observational studies are usually quite straightforward to design and conduct. Sometimes all you need is a notebook and pen! As you design your study, you can follow these steps.
Step 1: Identify your research topic and objectives
The first step is to determine what you’re interested in observing and why. Observational studies are a great fit if you are unable to do an experiment for practical or ethical reasons , or if your research topic hinges on natural behaviors.
Step 2: Choose your observation type and technique
In terms of technique, there are a few things to consider:
- Are you determining what you want to observe beforehand, or going in open-minded?
- Is there another research method that would make sense in tandem with an observational study?
- If yes, make sure you conduct a covert observation.
- If not, think about whether observing from afar or actively participating in your observation is a better fit.
- How can you preempt confounding variables that could impact your analysis?
- You could observe the children playing at the playground in a naturalistic observation.
- You could spend a month at a day care in your town conducting participant observation, immersing yourself in the day-to-day life of the children.
- You could conduct covert observation behind a wall or glass, where the children can’t see you.
Overall, it is crucial to stay organized. Devise a shorthand for your notes, or perhaps design templates that you can fill in. Since these observations occur in real time, you won’t get a second chance with the same data.
Step 3: Set up your observational study
Before conducting your observations, there are a few things to attend to:
- Plan ahead: If you’re interested in day cares, you’ll need to call a few in your area to plan a visit. They may not all allow observation, or consent from parents may be needed, so give yourself enough time to set everything up.
- Determine your note-taking method: Observational studies often rely on note-taking because other methods, like video or audio recording, run the risk of changing participant behavior.
- Get informed consent from your participants (or their parents) if you want to record: Ultimately, even though it may make your analysis easier, the challenges posed by recording participants often make pen-and-paper a better choice.
Step 4: Conduct your observation
After you’ve chosen a type of observation, decided on your technique, and chosen a time and place, it’s time to conduct your observation.
Here, you can split them into case and control groups. The children with siblings have a characteristic you are interested in (siblings), while the children in the control group do not.
When conducting observational studies, be very careful of confounding or “lurking” variables. In the example above, you observed children as they were dropped off, gauging whether or not they were upset. However, there are a variety of other factors that could be at play here (e.g., illness).
Step 5: Analyze your data
After you finish your observation, immediately record your initial thoughts and impressions, as well as follow-up questions or any issues you perceived during the observation. If you audio- or video-recorded your observations, you can transcribe them.
Your analysis can take an inductive or deductive approach :
- If you conducted your observations in a more open-ended way, an inductive approach allows your data to determine your themes.
- If you had specific hypotheses prior to conducting your observations, a deductive approach analyzes whether your data confirm those themes or ideas you had previously.
Next, you can conduct your thematic or content analysis . Due to the open-ended nature of observational studies, the best fit is likely thematic analysis .
Step 6: Discuss avenues for future research
Observational studies are generally exploratory in nature, and they often aren’t strong enough to yield standalone conclusions due to their very high susceptibility to observer bias and confounding variables. For this reason, observational studies can only show association, not causation .
If you are excited about the preliminary conclusions you’ve drawn and wish to proceed with your topic, you may need to change to a different research method , such as an experiment.
- Observational studies can provide information about difficult-to-analyze topics in a low-cost, efficient manner.
- They allow you to study subjects that cannot be randomized safely, efficiently, or ethically .
- They are often quite straightforward to conduct, since you just observe participant behavior as it happens or utilize preexisting data.
- They’re often invaluable in informing later, larger-scale clinical trials or experimental designs.
Disadvantages
- Observational studies struggle to stand on their own as a reliable research method. There is a high risk of observer bias and undetected confounding variables or omitted variables .
- They lack conclusive results, typically are not externally valid or generalizable, and can usually only form a basis for further research.
- They cannot make statements about the safety or efficacy of the intervention or treatment they study, only observe reactions to it. Therefore, they offer less satisfying results than other methods.
The key difference between observational studies and experiments is that a properly conducted observational study will never attempt to influence responses, while experimental designs by definition have some sort of treatment condition applied to a portion of participants.
However, there may be times when it’s impossible, dangerous, or impractical to influence the behavior of your participants. This can be the case in medical studies, where it is unethical or cruel to withhold potentially life-saving intervention, or in longitudinal analyses where you don’t have the ability to follow your group over the course of their lifetime.
An observational study may be the right fit for your research if random assignment of participants to control and treatment groups is impossible or highly difficult. However, the issues observational studies raise in terms of validity , confounding variables, and conclusiveness can mean that an experiment is more reliable.
If you’re able to randomize your participants safely and your research question is definitely causal in nature, consider using an experiment.
An observational study is a great choice for you if your research question is based purely on observations. If there are ethical, logistical, or practical concerns that prevent you from conducting a traditional experiment , an observational study may be a good choice. In an observational study, there is no interference or manipulation of the research subjects, as well as no control or treatment groups .
The key difference between observational studies and experimental designs is that a well-done observational study does not influence the responses of participants, while experiments do have some sort of treatment condition applied to at least some participants by random assignment .
A quasi-experiment is a type of research design that attempts to establish a cause-and-effect relationship. The main difference with a true experiment is that the groups are not randomly assigned.
Exploratory research aims to explore the main aspects of an under-researched problem, while explanatory research aims to explain the causes and consequences of a well-defined problem.
Experimental design means planning a set of procedures to investigate a relationship between variables . To design a controlled experiment, you need:
- A testable hypothesis
- At least one independent variable that can be precisely manipulated
- At least one dependent variable that can be precisely measured
When designing the experiment, you decide:
- How you will manipulate the variable(s)
- How you will control for any potential confounding variables
- How many subjects or samples will be included in the study
- How subjects will be assigned to treatment levels
Experimental design is essential to the internal and external validity of your experiment.
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Design Science Methodology for Information Systems and Software Engineering pp 225–245 Cite as
Observational Case Studies
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An observational case study is a study of a real-world case without performing an intervention. Measurement may influence the measured phenomena, but as in all forms of research, the researcher tries to restrict this to a minimum.
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Module 1: Lifespan Development
Research methods, learning outcomes.
- Describe methods for collecting research data (including observation, survey, case study, content analysis, and secondary content analysis)
We have just learned about some of the various models and objectives of research in lifespan development. Now we’ll dig deeper to understand the methods and techniques used to describe, explain, or evaluate behavior.
All types of research methods have unique strengths and weaknesses, and each method may only be appropriate for certain types of research questions. For example, studies that rely primarily on observation produce incredible amounts of information, but the ability to apply this information to the larger population is somewhat limited because of small sample sizes. Survey research, on the other hand, allows researchers to easily collect data from relatively large samples. While this allows for results to be generalized to the larger population more easily, the information that can be collected on any given survey is somewhat limited and subject to problems associated with any type of self-reported data. Some researchers conduct archival research by using existing records. While this can be a fairly inexpensive way to collect data that can provide insight into a number of research questions, researchers using this approach have no control on how or what kind of data was collected.
Types of Descriptive Research
Observation.
Observational studies , also called naturalistic observation, involve watching and recording the actions of participants. This may take place in the natural setting, such as observing children at play in a park, or behind a one-way glass while children are at play in a laboratory playroom. The researcher may follow a checklist and record the frequency and duration of events (perhaps how many conflicts occur among 2-year-olds) or may observe and record as much as possible about an event as a participant (such as attending an Alcoholics Anonymous meeting and recording the slogans on the walls, the structure of the meeting, the expressions commonly used, etc.). The researcher may be a participant or a non-participant. What would be the strengths of being a participant? What would be the weaknesses?
In general, observational studies have the strength of allowing the researcher to see how people behave rather than relying on self-report. One weakness of self-report studies is that what people do and what they say they do are often very different. A major weakness of observational studies is that they do not allow the researcher to explain causal relationships. Yet, observational studies are useful and widely used when studying children. It is important to remember that most people tend to change their behavior when they know they are being watched (known as the Hawthorne effect ) and children may not survey well.
Case Studies
Case studies involve exploring a single case or situation in great detail. Information may be gathered with the use of observation, interviews, testing, or other methods to uncover as much as possible about a person or situation. Case studies are helpful when investigating unusual situations such as brain trauma or children reared in isolation. And they are often used by clinicians who conduct case studies as part of their normal practice when gathering information about a client or patient coming in for treatment. Case studies can be used to explore areas about which little is known and can provide rich detail about situations or conditions. However, the findings from case studies cannot be generalized or applied to larger populations; this is because cases are not randomly selected and no control group is used for comparison. (Read The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat by Dr. Oliver Sacks as a good example of the case study approach.)
Figure 1. A survey is a common tool for collecting research data.
Surveys are familiar to most people because they are so widely used. Surveys enhance accessibility to subjects because they can be conducted in person, over the phone, through the mail, or online. A survey involves asking a standard set of questions to a group of subjects. In a highly structured survey, subjects are forced to choose from a response set such as “strongly disagree, disagree, undecided, agree, strongly agree”; or “0, 1-5, 6-10, etc.” Surveys are commonly used by sociologists, marketing researchers, political scientists, therapists, and others to gather information on many variables in a relatively short period of time. Surveys typically yield surface information on a wide variety of factors, but may not allow for an in-depth understanding of human behavior.
Of course, surveys can be designed in a number of ways. They may include forced-choice questions and semi-structured questions in which the researcher allows the respondent to describe or give details about certain events. One of the most difficult aspects of designing a good survey is wording questions in an unbiased way and asking the right questions so that respondents can give a clear response rather than choosing “undecided” each time. Knowing that 30% of respondents are undecided is of little use! So a lot of time and effort should be placed on the construction of survey items. One of the benefits of having forced-choice items is that each response is coded so that the results can be quickly entered and analyzed using statistical software. The analysis takes much longer when respondents give lengthy responses that must be analyzed in a different way. Surveys are useful in examining stated values, attitudes, opinions, and reporting on practices. However, they are based on self-report, or what people say they do rather than on observation, and this can limit accuracy. Validity refers to accuracy and reliability refers to consistency in responses to tests and other measures; great care is taken to ensure the validity and reliability of surveys.
In this video, Harvard psychologist Dan Gilbert explains survey research that was conducted to explore the way our preferences change over time.
You can view the transcript for “The psychology of your future self | Dan Gilbert” here (opens in new window) .
Content Analysis
Content analysis involves looking at media such as old texts, pictures, commercials, lyrics or other materials to explore patterns or themes in culture. An example of content analysis is the classic history of childhood by Aries (1962) called “Centuries of Childhood” or the analysis of television commercials for sexual or violent content or for ageism. Passages in text or television programs can be randomly selected for analysis as well. Again, one advantage of analyzing work such as this is that the researcher does not have to go through the time and expense of finding respondents, but the researcher cannot know how accurately the media reflects the actions and sentiments of the population.
Secondary content analysis, or archival research, involves analyzing information that has already been collected or examining documents or media to uncover attitudes, practices or preferences. There are a number of data sets available to those who wish to conduct this type of research. The researcher conducting secondary analysis does not have to recruit subjects but does need to know the quality of the information collected in the original study. And unfortunately, the researcher is limited to the questions asked and data collected originally.
Link to Learning
U.S. Census Data is available and widely used to look at trends and changes taking place in the United States (visit the United States Census website and check it out). There are also a number of other agencies that collect data on family life, sexuality, and on many other areas of interest in human development (go to the NORC at the University of Chicago website or the Henry J Kaiser Family Foundation website and see what you find.).
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Research Methods (Case Studies & Observation Studies) 0 Pages | Leaving School | 27/01/2023
- Case Studies & Observation Studies
——————————————————
Observation Studies
Categories of behaviour: If the researcher is undertaking a natural observation , he may need to divide the behaviour he sees into categories so that a quick record can be made. If the researcher wants to understand how the public respond to a woman collapsing in the street, for example, his categories might include 1.) Ignores and walks on. 2.) Hesitates and walks on. 3.) Checks to see if the woman is ok. 4.) Calls 999.
Inter-observer reliability: In order to test the reliability of an observer’s records, it might be sensible to have two observers who are working to exactly the same category and score sheet, so that they can compare their results at the end of the observation period. If these observations closely match each other then it can be assumed their observations have been accurate. If there is a significant difference it may be necessary to start the observation over again.
Advantages of natural observation Natural observations are high in ecological validity . A string of natural actions can be observed. In a laboratory situation people are often asked to complete unnatural tasks.
Disadvantages of natural observation In the absence ofcontrolled variables it is difficult to establish why someone behaved in a certain way. This type of study is reliant on the accuracy of the observation. There are ethical issues involved in an observation of this kind i.e. the people being observed may not know that this is the case. Should they be told? And if they are told, would their behaviour still be natural? Natural observations can be awkward to plan as well as time consuming.
- Research Methods
- Hypotheses and Experimental Designs
- Standardised Procedures & Instructions
- Ecological Validity & Sampling Methods
- Making Sense of Data & Anomalous Results
- Survey Methods & Ethical Considerations
- Remember it, Test it!
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There are several methods used in studying human behavior, such as observation, experiments, correlation studies, surveys, case studies and testing. Human behaviors manifest in many ways and are determined by culture, emotions, attitudes, v...
Some examples of descriptive research include case studies and preliminary observation of a group. Case studies are examples of a relevant event that can be analyzed to learn about a specific group or topic.
When you’re performing research as part of your job or for a school assignment, you’ll probably come across case studies that help you to learn more about the topic at hand. But what is a case study and why are they helpful? Read on to lear...
appreciative inquiry; case studies; case study observational research; health care; interprofessional collaboration; naturalistic inquiry; New Zealand;
Case Studies as observation. Case Studies are a type of observational research that involve a thorough descriptive analysis of a single individual, group, or
Case study observational research offers a promising approach for researchers in a wide range of health care settings seeking more complete understandings of
This case study is derived from a research project investigating just how intuitive are the controls on typical digital cameras. The study showed that
An observational study is used to answer a research question based purely on what the researcher observes. There is no interference or
An observational case study is a study of a real-world case without performing an intervention. Measurement may influence the measured
over, case study research produces observations on many different things and.
Case studies involve exploring a single case or situation in great detail. Information may be gathered with the use of observation, interviews, testing, or
Either as part of CSR or as a stand-alone method, observation methods involve directly observing and recording how research participants behave
Case Studies & Observation Studies ... A case study is a detailed study of a particular person, group or organisation. Focus is placed on the case
Looking for Case Studies on Observation and ideas? Get them here for free! We have collected dozens of previously unpublished examples in one place.