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Jonassen, D. H., (2000). Toward a design theory of problem solving . Education Technology Research and Development, 48 (4), 63-65.

Problem solving is a common, everyday activity in both personal and professional contexts. However, there is little research in instructional design literature to support specific models of problem-solving instruction and the process of learning to solve problems. In earlier research, Jonassen (2000) began to explore the instructional design requirements by differentiating between well-structured and ill-structured problems. This article builds upon that by defining the attributes of problems and problem solving and suggests a typology of problem-solving outcomes. To determine the problem types, hundreds of problems were collected. A cognitive task analysis was conducted to identify attributes. Finally, an iterative sort distinguished 11 different types of problems.

Summary of Key Points

  • Problem solving requires the mental representation of the situation and requires manipulation of the problem space. Problem solving is not a uniform activity.
  • One dimension of problem solving is problem variations. Problems are defined as well-structured or ill-structured and require different skills to solve. Problems also vary in their complexity with problem difficulty being of function of problem complexity. Problem-solving skills are dependent upon the nature of the context or domain.
  • A second dimension of problem solving is representation. Instructional designers must be aware of context, cues, and modality when representing problems.
  • A third dimension of problem solving is individual differences. Individual characteristics of learners may affect problem solving. Some of those traits include familiarity, domain and structural knowledge, cognitive controls, metacognition, epistemological believes, affective and conative elements, and general problem-solving skills.

Design Principles

Jonassen (2000) presents a typology of problem classes that practitioners and learners need to learn to solve as solving different kinds of problems calls on different kinds of knowledge and skills. The problem types are on a continuum of well-structured to ill-structured. The typology is taxonomic with well-structured problems being a prerequisite to ill-structured problems.

The typology, with additional details in Table 1: Problem typology varying from well-defined on the top to ill-defined on the bottom ( Jonassen, 2000, p. 74), is as follows:

  • Logical Problems: abstract tests of reasoning that puzzle the learner
  • Algorithmic Problems: repeating a series of steps through a procedure or formula
  • Story Problems: story with formula or procedure embedded
  • Rule-Using Problems: clear purpose or goal that is constrained but not restricted to a specific procedure or method
  • Decision-Making Problems: selecting a single option from a set of alternatives based on a set of criteria
  • Troubleshooting Problems: fault state diagnosis
  • Strategic Performance: real-time, complex performance with competing needs
  • Case-Analysis Problems: complex, leisure-time system with multiple ill-defined goals
  • Design Problems: vague goal statement with few constraints; requires structuring
  • Dilemmas: situation with contradictory positions

Example Work

Table 2 : Examples of problem types (Jonassen, 2000, p. 76) includes each problem type with an example of each problem.

Discussion Questions

  • We cannot assume that learners are naturally skilled in problem solving, especially complex and ill-structured problems. What instructional strategies can be used to support problem-solving outcomes?
  • Jonassen (2000) states there is a “discrepancy between what learners need (complex, ill-structured problem solving experience) and what formal education (schools and corporate training) provides.” Based upon information provided in this article, do you agree or disagree?
  • Identify a well-structured problem type and an ill-structured problem type. Describe a learning activity that would be an example each problem type.

Additional Resources

  • Weimer, M. (2009, November 12). Problem Based Learning:  Benefits and Risks Retrieved from https://www.facultyfocus.com
  • Jonassen, D. (2011). Supporting Problem Solving in PBL. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 5 (2). Available at: https://doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1256

Learning Environments Design Reading Series Copyright © by evrimb is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Problem solving is generally regarded as the most important cognitive activity in everyday and professional contexts. Most people are required to and rewarded for solving problems. However, learning to solve problems is too seldom required in formal educational settings, in part, because our understanding of its processes is limited. Instructional-design research and theory has devoted too little attention to the study of problem-solving processes. In this article, I describe differences among problems in terms of their structuredness, domain specificity (abstractness), and complexity. Then, I briefly describe a variety of individual differences (factors internal to the problem solver) that affect problem solving. Finally, I articulate a typology of problems, each type of which engages different cognitive, affective, and conative processes and therefore necessitates different instructional support. The purpose of this paper is to propose a metatheory of problem solving in order to initiate dialogue and research rather than offering a definitive answer regarding its processes.

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  • Educational Technology Research and Development /
  • Volume 48 Issue 4
  • Subject Areas /
  • Social Sciences /

Problem solving is generally regarded as the most important cognitive activity in everyday and professional contexts. Most people are required to and rewarded for solving problems. However, learning to solve problems is too seldom required in formal educational settings, in part, because our understanding of its processes is limited. Instructional-design research and theory has devoted too little attention to the study of problem-solving processes. In this article, I describe differences among problems in terms of their structuredness, domain specificity (abstractness), and complexity. Then, I briefly describe a variety of individual differences (factors internal to the problem solver) that affect problem solving. Finally, I articulate a typology of problems, each type of which engages different cognitive, affective, and conative processes and therefore necessitates different instructional support. The purpose of this paper is to propose a metatheory of problem solving in order to initiate dialogue and research rather than offering a definitive answer regarding its processes.

Educational Technology Research and Development – Springer Journals

Published: Jan 4, 2006

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Toward a design theory of problem solving

745  citations

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Cites background from "Toward a design theory of problem s..."

... Problem complexity is “concerned with how many, how clearly, and how reliably components are represented implicitly or explicitly in the problem” (Jonassen, 2000, p. 68). ...

... …of the cognitive processes associated with solving more constrained problem types such as logical, algorithmic, ruleuse, decision making, diagnosis, strategic performance, case analysis and dilemma analysis [see (Jonassen, 2000) for a more detailed description of problem complexity and typology]. ...

712  citations

View 3 citation excerpts

... Design problems are the most complex and ill-structured of all kinds of problems [9], and there are different kinds of design problems [45]. ...

... Although design problems are the most common kind of problem that practicing engineers solve (designing products, processes, systems, and methods), engineers also solve a variety of decisionmaking, troubleshooting, and systems analysis problems, each of which calls on a different set of cognitive skills [9]. ...

... Different kinds of problems engage and require different cognitive processes [9]. ...

576  citations

485  citations

Cites background or methods from "Toward a design theory of problem s..."

... proaches to learning is a focus on problem solving without a corresponding examination of the underlying problems with which students engage (Jonassen, 2000). ...

... This work builds upon their eff orts as a meta-analysis that crosses disciplines as well as categorizes the types of problems used (Jonassen, 2000), the PBL approach employed (Barrows, 1986), and the level of assessment (Gijbels et al. ...

... Jonassen’s much more in-depth view of problem types (Jonassen, 2000) is at least a step towards a better understanding of some of the variation across study fi ndings. ...

452  citations

... Novices in school are trained only to work on problems that are, by nature, decontextualized and well structured, while problems in everyday and professional contexts are complex and ill structured (Jonassen, 1997, 2000; Lave, 1988). ...

... Jonassen (1997, 2000) has attempted to articulate different kinds of problem solving and different learning and instructional requirements for each. ...

15,513  citations

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"Toward a design theory of problem s..." refers background in this paper

... People avoid risk when the outcomes are positive and embrace risk when the outcomes are negative ( Tversky & Kahneman, 1981 ). ...

10,770  citations

10,504  citations

... The larger the group that is involved in any dilemma, the more likely that individuals will pursue their self-interests, because the cost to any one person of providing for the common good exceeds the benefits that the individual would receive (Olson, 1965). ...

8,092  citations

7,037  citations

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  • Volume 48, Issue 4

Toward a Design Theory of Problem Solving ARTICLE

David h. jonassen.

Educational Technology Research and Development Volume 48 , Number 4 , 2000 ISSN 1042-1629

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Proposes a metatheory of problem solving. Describes differences among problems in terms of their structured ness, domain specificity (abstractness), and complexity; describes individual differences that affect problem solving; and presents a typology of problems, each of which engages different cognitive, affective, and conative process and therefore necessitates different instructional support. (Contains 100 references.) (Author/LRW)

Jonassen, D.H. (2000). Toward a Design Theory of Problem Solving. Educational Technology Research and Development, 48 (4), 63-85. Retrieved March 6, 2024 from https://www.learntechlib.org/p/165433/ .

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Using Problem-Based Learning Software with Students at a

Pavel samsonov, university of louisiana at lafayette, united states.

Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2004 (2004) pp. 1019–1026

Integrating a Intelligent Decision Aid into a Case-based Learning Environment for Improving Dynamic Decision Making

Robin garnett, the university of melbourne, australia.

EdMedia + Innovate Learning 2004 (2004) pp. 3867–3872

INNOVATOR: A cognitive tool for external representation of knowledge to support problem solving performance

Youngmin lee, florida state university, united states.

E-Learn: World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education 2003 (2003) pp. 2257–2264

A Technology Supported Visitation Program to the Sydney Olympic Park: Learner Challenges and Teacher Support

Gwyn brickell, lori lockyer, jan herrington, gordon brown & barry harper, university of wollongong, australia.

EdMedia + Innovate Learning 2004 (2004) pp. 4683–4689

Designing High Quality Learning Environments: Reflections on Some Successes and Failures

John hedberg, univ. of wollongong, australia.

EdMedia + Innovate Learning 2002 (2002) pp. 729–735

These links are based on references which have been extracted automatically and may have some errors. If you see a mistake, please contact [email protected] .

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  1. Toward a Design Theory of Problem Solving

    Toward a Design Theory of Problem Solving1 David H. Jonassen Problem solving is generally regarded as the most important cognitive activity in everyday and professional contexts. Most people are required to and rewarded for solving problems. However, learning to solve problems is too seldom required informal educational settings,

  2. Toward a design theory of problem solving

    Problem solving is generally regarded as the most important cognitive activity in everyday and professional contexts. Most people are required to and rewarded for solving problems. However, learning to solve problems is too seldom required in formal educational settings, in part, because our understanding of its processes is limited. Instructional-design research and theory has devoted too ...

  3. Toward a design theory of problem solving.

    Problem solving is generally regarded as the most important cognitive activity in everyday and professional contexts. Most people are required to and rewarded for solving problems. However, learning to solve problems is too seldom required informal educational settings in part, because our understanding of its processes is limited. Instructional-design research and theory has devoted too ...

  4. Toward a design theory of problem solving

    Headnote. Problem solving is generally regarded as the most important cognitive activity in everyday and professional contexts. Most people are required to and rewarded for solving problems. However, learning to solve problems is too seldom required in formal educational settings, in part, because our understanding of its processes is limited.

  5. Toward a Design Theory of Problem Solving

    Abstract. Problem solving is generally regarded as the most important cognitive activity in everyday and professional contexts. Most people are required to and rewarded for solving problems ...

  6. Toward a design theory of problem solving

    Jonassen, D.H. Toward a design theory of problem solving. ETR&D 48, 63-85 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02300500

  7. Toward a design theory of problem solving

    1997. TLDR. The model for solving well-structured problems is based on information processing theories of learning, while the model for solved ill-structuring problems relies on an emerging theory of ill- Structured problem solving and on constructivist and situated cognition approaches to learning. Expand.

  8. Jonassen, "Toward a Design Theory of Problem Solving"

    Toward a design theory of problem solving. Education Technology Research and Development, 48(4), 63-65. Background. Problem solving is a common, everyday activity in both personal and professional contexts. However, there is little research in instructional design literature to support specific models of problem-solving instruction and the ...

  9. ERIC

    Toward a Design Theory of Problem Solving. Jonassen, David H. Educational Technology Research and Development, v48 n4 p63-85 2000. Proposes a metatheory of problem solving. Describes differences among problems in terms of their structured ness, domain specificity (abstractness), and complexity; describes individual differences that affect ...

  10. Problem Solving

    Problem solving is the process of articulating solutions to problems. Problems have two critical attributes. First, a problem is an unknown in some context. That is, there is a situation in which there is something that is unknown (the difference between a goal state and a current state). Those situations vary from algorithmic math problems to ...

  11. Toward a design theory of problem solving

    Most people are required to and rewarded for solving problems. However, learning to solve problems is too seldom required informal educational settings, in part, because our understanding of its processes is limited. Instructional-design research and theory has devoted too little attention to the study of problem-solving processes.

  12. Teaching Problem Solving

    Toward a design theory of problem solving. Educational technology research and development, 48(4), 63-85. Kapur, M. (2016). Examining productive failure, productive success, unproductive failure, and unproductive success in learning. Educational Psychologist, 51(2), 289-299.

  13. Toward a design theory of problem solving

    Toward a design theory of problem solving Jonassen, David 2006-01-04 00:00:00 Problem solving is generally regarded as the most important cognitive activity in everyday and professional contexts. Most people are required to and rewarded for solving problems. However, learning to solve problems is too seldom required in formal educational ...

  14. Toward a design theory of problem solving

    Toward a design theory of problem solving. David H. Jonassen 1 • Institutions (1) 30 Nov 2000 - Educational Technology Research and Development (Kluwer Academic Publishers) - Vol. 48, Iss: 4, pp 63-85. TL;DR: The purpose of this paper is to propose a metatheory of problem solving in order to initiate dialogue and research rather than offering ...

  15. Full article: Theory and practice of Design Thinking: perspectives of

    2.1. Design Thinking and design thinkers: ontological issues. DT has recently emerged as an approach to facilitate innovative problem-solving in public and private organizations alike, with several main goals: from the improvement of services for citizens and other constituencies (service design), through the betterment of products (product design), to the streamlining of existing processes ...

  16. PDF Simon: Design as a Problem-Solving Activity

    toward design by many, if not most, researchers in cognitive psychology and cognitive ergonomics who have been ... Contrary to Simon's elaboration of a general theory of problem solving, which was based on experimental research, his work on design was analytical. With one or two exceptions (Kim et al., 1995), Simon indeed has not been involved in

  17. Toward a Design Theory of Problem Solving: Understanding the ...

    Toward a Design Theory of Problem Solving - Free download as PDF File (.pdf), Text File (.txt) or read online for free. This document summarizes an article that discusses problem solving and the need for a design theory of problem solving. It argues that problem solving is the most important cognitive activity but is seldom required in formal ...

  18. Toward a Theory of Problem Solving

    the formulation of a theory of problems which can be helpful as a theoretical base in the design of an automatic problem solver. further investigations about the automatic problem solver as a non-deterministic interpreter of an high-level representation language, and as an automatic programmer. naive description of problem solving;

  19. Simon: Design as a problem-solving activity

    toward design by many, if not most, researchers in cognitive psychology and cognitive ergonomics who have been ... Contrary to Simon's elaboration of a general theory of problem solving, which was based on experimental research, his work on design was analytical. With one or two exceptions (Kim et al., 1995), Simon indeed has not been involved in

  20. Toward a design theory of problem solving

    My Research and Language Selection Sign into My Research Create My Research Account English; Help and support. Support Center Find answers to questions about products, access, use, setup, and administration.; Contact Us Have a question, idea, or some feedback? We want to hear from you.

  21. PDF Towards Design Theory and expandable rationality

    Herbert Simon opened the way towards a major improvement in the economic and social sciences. Not only by criticizing perfect choice theory, but also by understanding the necessity to build Design as a Science and a theory. However, he was convinced that Design and creativity was just a special case of problem solving.

  22. Toward a Design Theory of Problem Solving

    Proposes a metatheory of problem solving. Describes differences among problems in terms of their structured ness, domain specificity (abstractness), and complexity; describes individual differences that affect problem solving; and presents a typology of problems, each of which engages different cognitive, affective, and conative process and therefore necessitates different instructional ...